Evolution of Hebrew Dialects

(Vere, Stein Atle. ©2011. "Evolution of Hebrew Dialects". brakha.blogspot.com.)

	Modern Age	Medieval Age	Classical Age			Iron Age	Bronze Age
	2000s	800s	200s	−00s	−500s	−600s	−2000s
	Yisrelit	Tavranit	Glilit	Yhudait		Yhudit	Shmit
	ישְׂרֵאלִית	טַבְרָנִית	גְּלִילִית	יְהוּדָאִית		יְהוּדִית	שְׁמִית
	(Israeli) (Modern) (New)	(Tiberian) Masartit מָסָרְתִית (Masoretic)	(Galilean) Mishnait מִשְׁנָאִית (Mishnaic) (Early Rabbinic)	(Judean)	(Late Biblical)	(Judahite) Mikrait מִקְרָאִית (Biblical)	(Proto-Semitic)
		Vowel Points	Mishna	Dead Sea Scrolls		Tanakh
Plosive, Voiced
בּב	b,v	[b][v]	[b][v]	[b][β] ≈ [b]		[b]	[b]
דּד	d	[d][ð]		[d]		[d]	[d]
גּג	g	[g][ɣ]		[g]		[g]	[g]
Plosive, Unvoiced
פּפ	p, f	[p][f]		[pʰ]		[pʰ]	[pʰ]
תּת	t	[t][θ]		[tʰ]		[tʰ]	[tʰ]
כּכ	k, kh	[k][x]		[kʰ]		[kʰ]	[kʰ]
Plosive, Emphatic
ט	t	[t‛]		[t‛]		[t‛]	[t’]
ק	k	[q]		[q]	[q] ≈ [k‛]	[k‛]	[k’]
Coronal Fricative, Voiced
ז	z	[z]		[z]		[z]	[ð]
ז	z	[z]		[z]		[z]	[dz]
Coronal Fricative, Unvoiced
שׁ	sh	[ʃ]		[ʃ]		[ʃ]	[s]
שׁ	sh	[ʃ]		[ʃ]		[ʃ]	[θ]
שׂ	s	[s]	[s]	[s]	[s]	[s] ≈ [ɬ]	[ɬ]
ס	s	[s]	[s]	[s]		[s]	[ts]
Coronal Fricative, Emphatic
צ	ts	[s‛]		[s‛]		[ts’]	[θ’]
צ	ts	[s‛]		[s‛]		[ts’]	[tɬ’]
צ	ts	[s‛]		[s‛]		[ts’]	[ts’]
Nasal
מ	m	[m]		[m]		[m]	[m]
נ	n	[n]		[n]		[n]	[n]
Liquid
ר	r = [ʁ]	[ʁ][ʀ]		[ʁ] ≈ [ɾ]		[ɾ]	[ɾ]
ל	l	[l]		[l]		[l]	[l]
Approximant
ו	v	[w], [-]		[w], [-]		[w], [-]	[w]
י	y	[y], [-]		[y], [-]		[y], [-]	[y]
Guttural Fricative, Voiced
ע	−	[ˁ]		[ˁ] ≈ [ʁ]		[ʁ]	[ʁ]
ע	−	[ˁ]		[ˁ]		[ˁ]	[ˁ]
Guttural Fricative, Unvoiced
ח	kh = [χ]	[ħ]		[ħ] ≈ [χ]		[χ]	[χ]
ח	kh = [χ]	[ħ]		[ħ]		[ħ]	[ħ]
Glottal
א	−	[ˀ], [-]		[ˀ], [-]		[ˀ], [-]	[ˀ]
ה	h	[h], [-]		[h], [-]		[h], [-]	[h]

The above table represents a rough approximation of the Hebrew dialects in the land of Yisrael, across time and locale. It derives from various conflicting opinions. Especially perplexing are the origins of the various -s- sounds and the possibility of a uvular -r- sound as early as the Tavranit dialect (Masoretic Pointings), or even as early as the Yhudait dialect (Dead Sea Scrolls).

Vere Transliteration - Yisrelit Hebrew

(Vere, Stein Atle. ©2011. “Hebrew: Vere Transliteration - Yisrelit Hebrew”. brakha.blogspot.com.)

Yisreli Hebrew Consonant Letter	Vere Transliteration in English	IPA Transliteration for Nonenglish Sound
א	−	[ˀ, −] (as stop in uh-uh)
בּ	b
ב	v
גּ	g
ג	g
דּ	d
ד	d
ה	h, −
ו	v, −
ז	z
ח	kh	[χ] (uvular purr)
ט	t
י	y, −
כּ	k
כ	kh	[χ] (uvular purr)
ל	l
מ	m
נ	n
ס	s
ע	−	[ˀ, −] (as stop in uh-uh)
פּ	p
פ	f
צ	ts
ק	k
ר	r	[ʁ] (uvular growl -r-)
שׁ	sh
שׂ	s
תּ	t
ת	t

Vowel Point	Vere Transliteration	IPA Transliteration
ִ	i	[i]    (like -i- in ski)
ֵ	e	[e̝]   (like -e- in they)
ֶ	e	[e̝]
ַ	a	[a]   (like -a- in spa)
ָ	a	[a]
ֹ	o	[o̝]   (like -o- in nor)
ֻ	u	[u]   (like -u- in flu)

Shva or Khataf Point	Vere Transliteration	IPA Transliteration
ְ	−	[−, ĕ] (not schwa [ə̆])
ֱ	e	[ĕ]
ֲ	a	[ă]
ֳ	a	[ă]

Syllable-Stress Meteg	Vere Transliteration	IPA Transliteration
ֽ	−	[ˈ]

Vere Transliteration

In this blog, I strive to standardize the spelling of all Hebrew words that appear in English.

I use my own easy-to-understand spelling system wherever possible. I call it the “Vere Transliteration” after my name. It is the result of years of developing the best possible transliteration system, using special diacritics and letters, to transcribe simultaneously both the pronunciation and the spelling of any Hebrew dialect. In the end, I decide “less is best”. My Vere Transliteration is as simple as possible, completely consistent, predictable, and is even easy for English speakers to try pronounce Hebrew accurately.

Capitalization

Using Vere Transliteration, I always capitalize Hebrew words in English as if proper names. This alerts the reader to treat it as a nonstandard English word. Marking the Hebrew transliterations with capitalization is more pleasant to read than italics or some form of bracketing.

Modern Hebrew

I always spell the Hebrew words according to the modern Yisrelit dialect, also known as Israeli Hebrew, Modern Hebrew, or New Hebrew. This is the Hebrew that most speak today, or at least recognize. It also transliterates well into the English alphabet - without any need for diacritical marks or special letters. So it is English friendly.

In addition to the English letter-combo (digraph) -sh-, as in Shabat שבת , there is also a Nonenglish -kh-, as in Khesed חסד . Yisraelit Hebrew pronounces this -kh- as a breathy purr with the tongue at the back of the mouth behind -k- (namely the unvoiced uvular fricative [χ]). Of course, the -r- stands for the uvular -r- also at the back (voiced uvular fricative [ʁ]). English letters work well when spelling Hebrew this way.

When silent − certain Hebrew consonant letters - א , ה , י , and ו - can signify the presence of a vowel. Such a “vowel letter” can represent almost any vowel. Typically the stop א when silent can mark the presence of -a- or -e-, but -o-, or even -i- or -u- is possible. Similarly the -h- ה when silent at the end of a word can mark any of these vowels, as -e in Moshe משה . When the -y- י is silent, it normally stands for -i- or -e- (the unround front vowels). And when -v- ו is silent, it normally stands for -u- or -o- (the round back vowels).

To spell Hebrew without vowel points while adding extra vowel letters is called “full spelling” Ktiv Male כתיב מלא (also known as “plene spelling” or sometimes as Latin “mothers of reading” Matres Lectiones). To spell with vowel points is called “pointed spelling” Ktiv Mnukad כְּתִיב מְנֻקָּד (also known as “lacking spelling” כְּתִיב חָסָר as it lacks the vowel letters, or even as “defective spelling”). Modern Hebrew normally uses full spelling without vowel points. It only uses pointed spelling when context must make pronunciation unambiguous, such as sacred texts, poetry, unfamiliar names, dictionary entries, and so on. The Vere Transliteration into English omits the vowel letter as silent, but of course does transliterate the vowel itself.

For the sake of consistent spelling, I always omit the Shva as if silent. The Hebrew vowel point Shva ְ  is usually silent (“resting Shva” שווא נח ). However sometimes it corresponds to where a speaker adds a brief vowel to ease the pronunciation while transitioning thru a cluster of consonants (“moving Shva” שווא נע ). Then the Shva sounds like a brief -e- [ĕ̝]. Thus English readers must infer from context whether or not to add this brief vowel, in the same way that the Hebrew readers must. For example, the Hebrew word for a Jewish “mystic” is Mkubal מְקֻבַּל . In this case, English adds a vowel to help out the consonants, M(ĕ)kubal. Alternatively, in the case of the Hebrew word for “numberings” Sfirot סְפִירוֹת , English can leave the Shva silent. Hebrew makes these same inferences too. Note, the Hebrew name Yhoshua יְהוֹשֻׁעַ can sound either like Y(ĕ)hoshua or like Yoshua. These expanded and contracted pronunciations can exist in Hebrew too.

This transliteration system might surprise the reader if the Shva follows the consonant א or ע (both glottal plosives [ˀ]). To avoid unfriendly diacritics, I always omit these letters as if silent. For example, the word “genius” Gaon גָּאוֹן properly has a brief stop between the two vowels [gaˀon] (similar to the stop between the English negative grunts “uh-uh”). To be fair, this letter א can be weak, even silent, so in rapid speech it often realizes simply as Gaon [gaon] with a shift in vowels but no stop. So the English spelling is accurate enough. So far so good. The surprise here comes with the plural “geniuses” Gonim גְּאוֹנִים , which in Hebrew really sounds more like G(ĕ)onim [gĕˀonim]. But this spelling system omits both the letter א and the Shva. The benefits of consistent, predictable spelling outway hyper-precision in this situation. Moreover, a native Hebrew speaker easily recognizes which Hebrew word the English spelling represents. Also, I always add the Hebrew letters anyway, wherever exact pronunciation is helpful.

Altho some dialects still do, the Yisrelit dialect no longer distinguishes consonant length, that the Dagesh point represents ּ. Example “altruist”, whether the long -dd- [d:] in [s‛ɐd:iq] צַדִּיק or the normal -d- [ð] in [s‛ɔðiq] צָדִיק , come to sound exactly the same in Yisrelit, as Tsadik [tsadik]. Thus, the Vere transliterions writes Tsadik (not Tsaddik), the day of unlabor Shabat (not Shabbat), the letter Gimel (not Gimmel), and so on.

The stress is normally on the last syllable of a word (so that is always a good guess). Sometimes it is on the second-to-last syllable (penultimate), rarely anywhere else. The Vere Transliteration never marks stress, like normal English spelling never marks stress. If the stress isnt on the last syllable, and it is necessary to indicate it to analyze the pronunciation, the Hebrew spelling can indicate it with the syllable-stress pointing, Meteg ֽ , added below the Hebrew letter whose syllable is stressed. Example: In the name Yhoshua יְהוֹשֻֽׁעַ the syllable-stress Meteg point occurs under the second-to-last syllable -shu- שֻֽׁ . The International Phonetic Alphabet can also indicate the stress with an upper pointing [ˈ] as in [yĕ.ho.ˈʃu.a].

Simple Is Best

Benefits of the simple, consistent, predictable Vere Transliteration include its use for word searches, library indexing, and even file names in various computer languages. It also helps track the Hebrew source by at least keeping consistent which Hebrew letters or vowel points it can or cant be. Also, it is more natural for English speakers to read and use.

Examples of Vere Transliteration:

“Instruction” Tora תורה

“Numbering” Sfira סְפִירָה

Yitskhak יצְחַק (cognate Isaac)

Yaakov יַעֲקֹב (cognates Jacob, James)



Examples of IPA Transliteration:

The only other transliteration system I use is the official International Phonetic Alphabet, IPA, to approximate the sound of ancient dialects, often Tavranit. Note, for the palatal approximant, I always substitute the letter [y] instead of the official IPA [j], thus for example, Yrushalayim ירושלים appears in the IPA as [yə̆.ɾu.ʃɔ.ˈla.yim] (cognate Jerusalem). I sometimes use it to clarify the pronunciation of a Non-Yisraelit dialect of Hebrew.

“Instruction” Tora [to.ʁɔ] תורה

“Numbering” Sfira [sə̆.fi.ʁɔ] סְפִירָה
Yitskhak [yis‛.ħaq] יצְחַק

Yaakov [ya.ˁă.qov] יַעֲקֹב

 

 

I also use the IPA to represent Nonlatin scripts, like Greek and Egyptian.

 

Yhoshua יְהוֹשֻֽׁעַ (cognates Joshua, Jeshua, Jesus): Yhudit Hebrew [ya.hu.tʃu.ˁa] → Late Biblical Hebrew [ya.u.tʃu.ˁa] → [yo.ʸʃu.ˁa] → [ye.ʃu.ˁa] → Yhudait Hebrew  [ye.ˈʃu. ˁa] → Koine Greek [ye.ˈsu.a]-[os] → [ye.ˈsu:s] ἰησοῦς → Late Latin Iesus [dʒe.ˈsus] → Anglo-Norman Middle English Iesus [ˈdʒe.sus] → Early Modern English (after Great Vowel Shift) [ˈdʒi.zɐs] → Jesus [ˈdʒi.zəs]

“Lazurite” Sapir סַפִּיר : Biblical Hebrew [sap:ʰ.iɾ] → Yhudait Hebrew [sap:ʰ.iʁ] → Koine Greek sapphiros [sap:ʰ.ˈir]-[os] σαπφειρος → Medieval Latin sapphirus [sap.ˈfir]-[ʊs] → Early Modern English cognate sapphire [sæ.fɐɪr]

Stones of Heavens - Sapir Stone - Name

The Tanakh (Hebrew Bible) calls lazurite Sapir - even the name of this gem derives from the heavens above.

Hebrew borrows its name Sapir from the Old Iranian name “valuable one of Saturn” Saniprigyam, Sani being the planet Saturn. (Klein.) Probably these Indo-Europeans view Saturn as the farthest planet, grinding across the celestial ceiling to guide the cycles of the seasons below. For Hebrew-speakers too, the gem manifests the heavens above.

Saniprigyam → Sapir



The Hebrew gem name Sapir comes from the language of the merchants who bring lazurite into the horizons of the ancient world.

(Vere, Stein. ©2011. “Sapir Caravan”.)

Evidently, one source supplies the known world lazurite, the ancient mining area of today Ladjuar Medam, in the remotest reaches of Afghanistan. Around there the tribes speak the Iranian languages.

Between their tribes in the east and the tribes of Yisrael (Israel) in the west, the mutual caravans trek the traderoutes meeting along the River of Prat (Euprates) in today Iraq.

(Vere. ©2011. “Sapir Routes”.)

Much of the lazurite heads from caravan to caravan to Egypt.



While the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible) keeps traditions about the Bronze Age, these mainly crystallize later within Hebrew dialects of the Iron Age, around the years −700s to −500s (namely the 8th to 6th centuries BCE).

Yisrelim already use lazurite a millennium before, but their royal scribes keep the language current, updating the ongoing Tanakhi traditions. Probably the name Sapir keeps current too, making Old Iranian during the Iron Age the contempory source.

Note the Hebrew language is actually one of several Canaanite dialects. Possibly, mutually intelligible Canaanite-speakers develop this Hebrew form of the gem name. For example, to the north in Lvanon (Lebanon), the Knaanim (Canaanites proper later called Phoenicians) boast an international gem trade, hosting merchants from three continents.

Even so, Hebrew-speakers themselves pursue the traderoutes, and probably know the Old Iranian-speakers firsthand.



At first, Hebrew-speakers attempt the foreign sound, Sanipriˈgyam.

The stress is on the final syllable -ˈgyam (the consonant -gy- is possibly a voiced palatal frigative /ʝ/). There is some hypothetical Hebrew realization, such as Sanipriˈyam סַנִפְרִיָּֽם . But it proves unstable. The unstressesd short -i- /ɪ/ is weak in Hebrew and often expands to long -i- /i/ or oppositely contracts to a shwa /ə/ even going silent, thus Sanpriˈyam. But then the resulting consonant cluster -npr- needs a vowel (this r is probably a dental tap /ɾ/, sounding like a quick gentle -d-). So the Hebrew adds a shwa -ə- to alleviate the consonants, thus Sannpəriˈyam. But then two squeezed vowels before the stress on last syllable -pəriˈya- proves difficult to maintain. Dramatically, the upcoming vowel -i- swaps around with the -r- (metathesizing -riy- to -iyr-), thereby replacing the shwa -ə- to alleviate the consonantal cluster, trying for Sanpiyˈram. But this -iy- vowel with palatizing consonant produces a strong long -i-, and the main stress of the syllables shifts to it. Thus, Sanˈpirˈam. Thus the final vowel -a- loses emphasis and contracts, with -ˈpiram- becoming -ˈpirm-. But in the potential Sanˈpirm, the final consonant sequence -rm is awkward (again this -r- sounds somewhat like d). So the generally weak final -m fails to happen. Thus Sanˈpir. Ultimately, the generally weak -n- assimilates into the oncoming -p- (geminating the -pp-). So finally, the gem name stabilizes within the rhythm of the Hebrew language as: Sapˈpir [sap:ˈʰiɾ] סַפִּיר . Whence Sapir.

Compare how Aramaic-speakers render this Old Iranian name. They add another syllable, the suffix “-on”, for some hypothetical realization, such as Sanipriˈyamon סַנִפְרִיָֽמוֹן (with the stress on -ˈyam-), possibly meaning something like “a little (gem) of the Saniprigyam (mineral)”. They too realize the -gy- sound as -y-. They too drop the weak i vowel, thus Sanpriˈyamon. But then they too must alleviate the consonantal cluster -npr-. They too add a shwa vowel -ə-, thus Sanpəriˈyamon. But (instead of metathesizing the -riy- like the Hebrew-speakers do), this shwa assimilates into the oncoming -i- and palatizes and becomes a strong -i- like it, because the weak i is unstable, thus Sanpiriˈyamon. Like in Hebrew, this -iy- vowel with a palatizing consonant is strong, and the syllable stress shifts to it. Then the unstressed -a- contracts, thus Sanpiˈrimon. Possibly, the nasal sound -m- assimilates into the nasal sound of the final -n. In any case, the gem name stabilizes in Aramaic as: Sanpiˈrinon סַנְפִּירִֽינוֹן .

By the way, at that time among the Indo-Iranian languages, Old Iranian and Sanskrit Indian relate closely. The cognate in Sanskrit is Shyani-priya [ɕɐ.nɪ.pɽɪ.yɐ] श नि प्रि य. You can see how easily the name can drift: Saniprigyam → Shyanipriya → Sanpir → Sapir. Originally linguists suggest Hebrew gets the name from Sanskrit.



But probably the nearer Iranian-speakers are the point of contact. So.

Saniprigyam → Sanipriyam → Sanpir → Sapir

Something like that.



Images
• (Vere, Stein. ©2011. “Sapir Cravan”. brakha.blogspot.com. Derivation. McDowell, J. 2008 share alike. Wikipedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kuchi_caravan_in_Badakhshan,_Afghanistan.jpg, 2011.)
• (Vere. ©2011. “Sapir Routes”. brakha.blogspot.com. Derivation. Yahoo. 2011. http://maps.yahoo.com/#mvt=h&lat=35.499354&lon=51.105545&zoom=5, 2011. Gross, Ross. “Silk Roads”. Travels and Writings. 2007. http://rolfgross.dreamhosters.com/HistoryAtlas-GE/Post/SilkRoads.jpg, 2001.)

Cites
• (Klein, Earnest. ©1987. “סַפִּיר”. A Comprehensive Etymological Dictionary of the Hebrew Language for Readers of English. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company.)
Note Klein transliterates the Old Iranian name as Sani-prijám with stress on the final syllable, and derives both Hebrew and Aramaic from it. This -j- possibly represents a voiced palatal /ʝ/, as I suspect it is, paralleling the unvoiced plosive /c/ but weakening, whence my transliteration as -gy-. Hebrew, Aramaic, and Sanskrit all render it as an approximate -y-, tho it relates -dzh- in later Avestan.

Stones of Heavens - Sapir Stone

Sapir is deep-blue lazurite.

The ancient Hebrew gem name Sapir ספיר signifies the mineral that today English calls lazurite. The identity is confident. (Klein.) Lazurite has a crystalline structure but rarely crystallizes well. Thus its opaque blue tends to aggregate with other minerals, especially white calcite and goldlike pyrite.

Often azure encompasses cloudy wisps and starry gleams to physicalize the celestial splendor of the skies above.


(Vere. ©2011. "Sapir Aggregate".)

The mineral crystalizes, ideally, according to the following chemical formula:
(Na, Ca)8 (Al6 Si6 O24) (S, SO4, Cl2). (Hassan.)


(Vere. ©2011. "Sapir Crystal".)

Today jewelers reserve term lazurite for pure glassy crystal and the term lapis lazuli for opaque aggregate rock.

But the ancient term Sapir specifies the mineral lazurite, whether pure or aggregate. The deeper the blue the better. “Deep” means the color is dark-but-intense. The brilliant blue hue saturates the color, shining in shadow. It evokes twilight sky, when dusk turns azure.

Sapir is “the” stone of heavens.



Images
• (Vere, Stein Atle. ©2011. "Sapir Aggregate". Derivation. Anonymous Luna04. 2005 share alike. Wikipedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lapis_lazuli_block.jpg, 2011.)
• (Vere, Stein Atle. ©2011. "Sapir Crystal". Derivation. Lavansky, Rob. 2005 share alike. Wikipedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lazurite-177793.jpg, 2011.)

Cites
• (Klein, Earnest. ©1987. “סַפִּיר”. A Comprehensive Etymological Dictionary of the Hebrew Language for Readers of English. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company.)
• (Hassan, I & Peterson, RC & Grundy, HD. ©1985. “The structure of lazurite, ideally Na6Ca2(Al6Si6O24)S2, a member of the sodalite group”. Acta Crystallographica. C41: 827-832.)

Stones of Heavens

Stein Atle Vere. ©2011. Brakha, "Stones of Heavens". brakha.blogspot.com.



The entries of my title “Stones of Heaven” אבני שמים investigate the archeology of ancient gems.

This title spins off from the title “Word of Tora” מלת תורה. I initiate these investigations to clarify the identity of certain Hebrew gem names. The task proves extensive.

These precious stones so entwine with ancient spirituality, they deserve their own space where people can explore them. The Tanakh (Jewish Bible) evokes gems to communicate the bliss, power, joy, enlightenment, and desirability that their visions of God know. Kabala (Jewish mysticism) celebrates the gemmy discussion.

Gems resonate an archetype. The stones are raw physical reality that humans transform by great effort and ingenuity into ideals of power and pleasure. Even immortality. I choose to call the title the “Stones of Heaven” rather than the “Gems of Heaven”. First, it is accurate enough. The Tanakh simply calls gems “stones” אבנים . Yet the juxtaposition of the “Stone” of “Heavens” emphasizes the archetype of the mundane reality becoming absolute ideal without ever ceasing to be real. It is Heaven and Earth becoming one. The fulfillment of unceasing desire.

I focus on the gems that flow thru the Land of Yisrael, but its traderoutes link the edges of the known world to places like todays Spain and India. Where curious, I note the way cultures use gems, and the semantic meanings that these gems communicate.

There is a language of stones.

Word of Tora

Stein Atle Vere. ©2011. Brakha, "Word of Tora". brakha.blogspot.com.



When translating an ancient text, I often investigate the precise meanings of certain Hebrew words and their equivalents in other languages. The words are significant because they define central concepts or else are of uncertain meaning, or sometimes both. These excursions distract me from the task at hand, but fascinate. I document them under “Word of Tora” מלת תורה . Later, I hope to systemize these entries.